Affordable Does Not Mean Lower Quality

In today’s globalized healthcare landscape, one of the most frequently searched and debated questions is:

“Why are medical treatments cheaper in Turkey compared to the UK, the US, or Europe?”

For international patients researching dental implants, Hollywood Smile procedures, cosmetic surgery, bariatric operations, hair transplantation, and advanced surgical treatments, the difference in pricing can seem almost unbelievable at first glance. In many cases, procedures in Turkey cost 50–70% less than in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, or France — even when using comparable technologies and materials.

Naturally, this raises an important concern:

Does lower cost mean lower quality?

The short answer is no. In fact, Turkey has become one of the world’s leading destinations for medical tourism, welcoming hundreds of thousands of international patients every year. Cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, and Antalya host modern hospitals equipped with cutting-edge medical technology and internationally trained specialists.

Turkey is home to:

• Internationally accredited hospitals and medical centers
• Surgeons trained in the US and EU
• Advanced digital medical technologies
• High standards of sterilization and patient safety
• Comprehensive medical tourism packages including VIP transfers and luxury accommodation

So how can the same level of expertise, technology, and patient care be offered at significantly lower prices?

The answer lies not in reduced quality — but in economic structure, operational costs, currency differences, healthcare system models, and government support for medical tourism.

Understanding the Cost Gap: A Comparative Overview

Average Treatment Cost Comparison (EUR)

Below is a general comparison of common procedures:

The difference is substantial — yet outcomes and techniques often mirror Western standards.

So what explains this?

1. Lower Operational Costs in Turkey

One of the most important factors behind the significantly lower healthcare costs in Turkey is the difference in hospital operating expenses compared to countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States.

While many patients initially assume that lower prices reflect lower quality, the reality is very different. The reduced cost structure in Turkey is largely driven by economic and systemic factors — not by compromised medical standards.

Why Are Hospital Operating Costs So High in the UK and US?

Healthcare systems in countries like the UK and US operate under substantial financial pressure due to several structural factors:

1️⃣ Extremely High Malpractice Insurance

Medical malpractice insurance premiums in the US, in particular, are among the highest in the world. Surgeons and specialists may pay tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars annually to maintain coverage. These expenses are inevitably passed on to patients.

2️⃣ Expensive Labor Costs

Healthcare salaries in the US and UK are significantly higher due to economic standards, taxation, and cost of living. While medical professionals deserve competitive compensation, these elevated wage structures increase total hospital operating budgets.

3️⃣ Administrative Overhead

Hospitals in Western countries often employ large administrative teams to manage:

• Insurance claims
• Legal compliance
• Billing systems
• Regulatory reporting
• Multi-layered approval processes

In some cases, administrative staffing rivals or exceeds clinical staffing levels — adding to overall healthcare costs.

4️⃣ Facility Leasing & Infrastructure Expenses

Urban property prices in cities like London, New York City, and Los Angeles are extremely high. Leasing medical facilities, maintaining advanced infrastructure, and complying with complex building codes significantly raise operational budgets.

5️⃣ Regulatory & Compliance Costs

Strict regulatory frameworks, accreditation processes, and legal documentation requirements require ongoing financial investment. While these systems protect patients, they also increase the financial burden on healthcare providers.

Why Are Healthcare Costs in Turkey Lower?

In contrast, hospital operating costs in Turkey are structurally more efficient due to economic and governmental advantages.

1️⃣ Competitive Yet Lower Average Wages

Turkey maintains highly trained medical professionals, many of whom have international certifications and experience. However, the average wage level is aligned with the local economy — meaning hospitals can operate efficiently without the extreme payroll pressures seen in the US or UK.

2️⃣ Lower Property & Infrastructure Costs

Even in major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir, commercial property and infrastructure expenses are substantially lower than in Western Europe or North America.

This reduces:

• Facility leasing costs
• Construction and renovation expenses
• Utility and maintenance overhead

3️⃣ Reduced Insurance & Administrative Burden

While Turkey maintains strong regulatory oversight through the Ministry of Health, malpractice insurance premiums and legal costs are considerably lower compared to the US. Administrative processes are generally more streamlined, reducing overhead expenses.

4️⃣ Government Support for Private Healthcare Investment

The Turkish government has actively supported private hospital development through investment incentives, tax benefits, and medical tourism initiatives. This has encouraged:

• Modern hospital infrastructure
• Advanced technology adoption
• Competitive service pricing

The result is a healthcare ecosystem that is both technologically advanced and economically efficient.

The Impact on the Final Patient Bill

When you compare hospital operating costs in Turkey to those in the UK or US, the structural difference is clear.

Lower operational expenses mean hospitals can offer:

• More affordable surgical procedures
• Competitive dental and cosmetic treatments
• High-quality care at internationally accessible prices

Importantly, these savings are largely driven by macroeconomic factors — not reduced clinical standards.

For international patients, this translates into receiving treatment in modern, accredited healthcare institutions while benefiting from a significantly reduced overall cost structure.

2. Currency Exchange Advantage for International Patients

(Keywords: euro to Turkish lira healthcare, currency advantage Turkey medical tourism, medical tourism exchange rate benefits)

One of the most powerful — yet often misunderstood — reasons behind the affordability of medical treatments in Turkey is the currency exchange advantage.

Turkey’s healthcare system operates primarily in Turkish Lira (TRY), while the majority of international patients pay in:

• Euros (€)
• British Pounds (£)
• US Dollars ($)

Due to the consistent exchange rate difference between the Turkish Lira and major Western currencies, patients from Europe and North America benefit from significantly stronger purchasing power.

💱 How the Exchange Rate Creates Real Savings

When converting euros, pounds, or dollars into Turkish Lira:

• International patients effectively receive more value per unit of their currency
• Clinics are able to offer high-quality treatments at internationally competitive prices
• Comprehensive packages (treatment + accommodation + transfers) remain affordable

For example, when a patient pays €3,000–€4,000 for a treatment in Turkey, the converted amount in Turkish Lira allows clinics to cover:

• Specialist surgeon fees
• Advanced medical technology
• High-quality implant or prosthetic brands
• Luxury clinical environments
• Multilingual patient coordination teams

— all while remaining significantly more affordable than equivalent treatment in countries like the UK, Germany, France, or the United States.

🏥 Lower Cost Does NOT Mean Lower Quality

A common misconception is that lower prices reflect lower standards. In reality, the cost difference is largely driven by:

• Currency exchange rates
• Lower operational costs compared to Western Europe
• Government-supported medical tourism infrastructure
• Competitive healthcare market dynamics

Turkey is home to internationally accredited hospitals, highly trained specialists, and advanced digital medical technologies. Many doctors have international education, certifications, and global patient experience.

The price advantage is economic — not clinical.

Government Support for Medical Tourism in Turkey

Turkey has strategically positioned itself as one of the world’s leading destinations for medical tourism through strong, structured, and long-term government support. Over the past two decades, healthcare has been identified as a priority sector within the country’s economic development strategy. As a result, Turkey has built a regulatory, financial, and promotional framework designed to strengthen its position in global healthcare travel.

1️⃣ Strategic National Vision

Under the coordination of the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health and the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Trade, medical tourism has become a structured export sector rather than simply a healthcare service.

Turkey’s health tourism strategy focuses on:

• Increasing international patient inflow
• Ensuring standardized, high-quality medical services
• Expanding internationally accredited healthcare facilities
• Strengthening Turkey’s global healthcare brand

Medical tourism is officially classified as a service export industry, meaning healthcare institutions serving international patients benefit from export-oriented incentives.

2️⃣ Financial Incentives & Tax Advantages

The Turkish government provides significant financial support to certified health tourism providers, including:

• Tax reductions and exemptions for qualified institutions
• Government-backed marketing and international advertising support
• Incentives for participation in international medical tourism fairs
• Subsidies for overseas promotion and brand development
• Investment incentives for hospital infrastructure and advanced medical technologies

These incentives reduce operational costs for healthcare institutions, allowing them to maintain competitive pricing while investing in high-end equipment and international standards.

3️⃣ Accreditation & Quality Control

A key pillar of medical tourism Turkey government support is strict regulation and certification.

Only institutions that:

• Meet Ministry of Health standards
• Employ licensed medical professionals
• Obtain official Health Tourism Authorization Certificates
• Comply with international patient service regulations

are permitted to treat international patients under health tourism laws.

Additionally, the government actively supports international accreditation programs such as:

• Joint Commission International (JCI)
• ISO healthcare quality certifications

Turkey is among the countries with the highest number of internationally accredited hospitals, reflecting government-backed quality assurance policies.

4️⃣ Infrastructure & Technological Investment

Through public-private partnerships, Turkey has invested heavily in large-scale healthcare infrastructure projects, including city hospitals equipped with:

• Advanced surgical theaters
• Robotic surgery systems
• Hybrid operating rooms
• 3D imaging and digital dentistry technologies
• Modern intensive care units

This modernization ensures that international patients receive care aligned with European and American standards, but at significantly lower costs.

5️⃣ Regulation of Certified Health Tourism Providers

To protect international patients and maintain trust in the sector, Turkey strictly regulates medical tourism agencies and facilitators.

Only institutions and organizations that:

• Hold an official health tourism authorization
• Operate within Ministry of Health guidelines
• Provide transparent pricing
• Follow patient rights regulations

are legally permitted to operate in this field.

This regulatory structure enhances patient safety, transparency, and international credibility.

6️⃣ International Promotion & Global Branding

The Turkish government actively promotes medical tourism worldwide through:

• International trade missions
• Healthcare exhibitions in Europe, the Middle East, and North America
• Digital campaigns targeting global patients
• Collaboration with embassies and trade offices

Government-backed promotional programs have significantly increased Turkey’s global visibility as a trusted healthcare destination.

Why Government Support Matters for Patients

For international patients, strong government involvement means:

• Regulated and certified healthcare providers
• High medical standards
• Internationally accredited hospitals
• Transparent systems
• Stable legal framework
• Competitive pricing supported by national incentives

Turkey’s success in medical tourism is not accidental. It is the result of coordinated policy, structured investment, strict regulation, and long-term government commitment.

📌 All treatments and services will be carried out in health institutions accredited by the Turkish Ministry of Health and possessing a certificate of authorization in health tourism.

→ Why Turkey Became the World’s Top Destination for Medical Tourism

4. Competitive Private Healthcare Market in Turkey

One of the most important reasons behind Turkey’s affordable medical treatments is its highly competitive private healthcare sector.

Unlike countries such as the UK, where healthcare is primarily delivered through the publicly funded National Health Service, or the United States, where complex insurance-based systems dominate the market, Turkey operates a dynamic mixed model. Alongside public hospitals, there is a strong, well-developed private healthcare sector that actively competes for both local and international patients.

This competition directly benefits patients in several important ways.

A Market Driven by Competition, Not Insurance Complexity

In systems heavily dependent on insurance providers, pricing often becomes complicated due to:

• Administrative costs
• Insurance negotiations
• Billing codes
• Multi-layered reimbursement systems
• Hidden facility or specialist fees

These factors frequently lead to inflated final bills and unpredictable costs for patients.

In contrast, Turkey’s private healthcare providers operate in a competitive, transparent environment. Clinics and hospitals must clearly present their pricing structures, treatment plans, and service inclusions to attract patients—especially international medical travelers.

As a result, pricing is:

• Transparent
• Clearly itemized
• Competitive
• Structured around patient satisfaction

All-Inclusive Treatment Packages

One of the most distinctive advantages of Turkey’s private healthcare model is the widespread use of bundled medical packages.

Instead of separating every service into individual charges, many providers offer comprehensive, fixed-price packages that may include:

• Initial consultation and specialist evaluation
• Advanced diagnostics (X-rays, CT scans, blood tests)
• The surgical or medical procedure itself
• Anesthesia services
• Medications during hospital stay
• Post-operative follow-ups
• Medical reports and documentation

For international patients, packages often extend beyond medical services to include:

• 4–5 star hotel accommodation
• VIP airport transfers
• Local transportation between hotel and hospital
• Multilingual patient coordinators
• Translation services
• Dedicated aftercare assistance

This structure eliminates financial uncertainty and allows patients to plan their treatment journey with clarity and confidence.

Predictable Pricing vs. Unexpected Bills

In many Western healthcare systems, patients frequently face unexpected charges after treatment, such as:

• Additional anesthesia fees
• Separate hospital facility costs
• Laboratory fees billed independently
• Post-operative medication charges
• Specialist consultation add-ons

Turkey’s competitive private sector reduces this risk by offering predetermined package pricing. Patients know exactly what they are paying before treatment begins.

This predictability is especially important for medical tourists traveling from:

• The UK
• Germany
• France
• Spain
• Italy
• The United States

For these patients, cost transparency is often as important as medical quality.

High Service Standards Through Market Competition

Because private institutions compete directly with one another, they must continuously invest in:

• Modern medical technologies
• International accreditation standards
• Digital treatment planning systems
• Advanced surgical equipment
• Highly trained specialists
• Patient experience teams

This competition drives improvements in quality, comfort, and service standards.

Private hospitals and clinics in major cities such as Istanbul have developed a reputation for combining medical expertise with hospitality-level patient care—something less common in public-only systems.

Why Competition Lowers Costs Without Lowering Quality

Lower treatment costs in Turkey are not the result of reduced medical standards. Instead, they stem from:

• Lower operational expenses compared to Western Europe and the US
• Favorable currency exchange rates for international patients
• Government support for medical tourism
• Efficient private-sector management
• High patient volume

When clinics treat a large number of international patients annually, economies of scale allow them to maintain high-quality services while offering competitive pricing.

5. Lower Malpractice Insurance Costs: A Major Factor Behind Affordable Treatment Pricing

One of the most overlooked reasons why medical treatment is significantly more expensive in countries like the United States is the high cost of malpractice insurance.

In the U.S., the healthcare system operates within a highly litigious environment. Physicians—especially surgeons in fields such as plastic surgery, orthopedics, neurosurgery, and obstetrics—often face substantial legal exposure. As a result:

• Malpractice insurance premiums can reach hundreds of thousands of dollars per year
• Certain high-risk specialties pay dramatically higher coverage rates
• Legal defense costs, settlements, and jury awards can be extremely expensive
• Administrative compliance and legal documentation requirements add further operational costs

These insurance expenses are not absorbed by providers alone. Instead, they become part of the overall cost structure and are ultimately passed directly to patients through:

• Higher surgical fees
• Increased hospital facility charges
• Elevated consultation costs
• Additional “defensive medicine” testing (extra scans, labs, and diagnostics ordered to minimize legal risk)

This legal and insurance-driven financial burden is one of the structural reasons healthcare pricing in the U.S. remains among the highest globally.

How the Situation Differs in Turkey

In Turkey, malpractice insurance is also mandatory for healthcare professionals. However, the system operates within a different legal and regulatory framework.

Key differences include:

• Significantly lower malpractice insurance premiums compared to the U.S.
• Fewer high-value litigation cases
• A legal structure that differs in frequency and scale of compensation claims
• Reduced reliance on defensive medicine practices

Because the litigation culture is not as aggressive or financially extreme as in the U.S., insurance costs remain more moderate. This has several important effects on treatment pricing:

1. Lower operational overhead for physicians and hospitals
2. Reduced pressure to inflate procedure fees
3. More predictable cost structures
4. Greater transparency in bundled pricing models

The Impact on International Patients

When comparing treatment costs between the U.S. and Turkey, the difference is not necessarily due to lower medical standards. Instead, it is often the result of structural economic factors within each healthcare system.

In Turkey, providers can offer:

• Comprehensive treatment packages
• All-inclusive medical tourism pricing
• High-quality care at competitive rates

This pricing flexibility is made possible in part because malpractice insurance premiums do not consume a disproportionate share of operating budgets.

A Structural Cost Advantage — Not a Quality Compromise

Lower malpractice insurance costs do not mean the absence of regulation or patient protection. Healthcare institutions in Turkey operate under strict Ministry of Health regulations, and physicians are licensed and insured.

However, the overall legal environment allows for a more balanced risk structure—resulting in:

• Sustainable provider costs
• Competitive international pricing
• Accessible advanced treatments

Ultimately, lower malpractice insurance premiums are one of the key structural reasons why patients traveling to Turkey can access advanced medical and dental procedures at significantly more affordable rates compared to the United States—without the inflated legal overhead built into pricing models.

6. No Insurance-Driven Billing Inflation

One of the most significant reasons medical treatment in Turkey remains affordable is the absence of insurance-driven cost inflation — a major issue in countries like the United States.

In the US healthcare system, pricing is heavily influenced by private insurance companies. Hospitals and clinics often set higher procedure prices to negotiate with insurers. These inflated “list prices” rarely reflect the true cost of treatment. Instead, they are part of a complex billing ecosystem that includes:

• Insurance negotiations
• Administrative processing fees
• Coding systems (CPT, ICD billing codes)
• Claim rejections and re-submissions
• Deductibles and co-pays
• Facility fees and separate physician charges

As a result, patients often face unclear pricing, unexpected bills, and confusing financial breakdowns — even when they have insurance coverage.

How Turkey’s Model Is Different

Turkey’s private healthcare sector operates on a much more direct and transparent payment structure — especially for international patients.

In most cases:

• Patients pay out-of-pocket
• There are no third-party insurance markups
• No inflated “negotiation pricing”
• No hidden administrative or processing costs
• No complicated billing codes passed on to patients

Instead of a multi-layered billing chain, the pricing model is straightforward and consumer-focused.

Clear, Package-Based Pricing

Many Turkish healthcare providers offer all-inclusive treatment packages designed specifically for medical tourists. These packages often include:

• Initial consultation and diagnostics
• Treatment or surgical procedure
• Medical materials and devices
• Post-treatment medications
• Follow-up appointments
• Hotel accommodation
• VIP airport transfers
• Translation services

Rather than receiving multiple separate invoices from surgeons, anesthesiologists, hospitals, and labs — patients receive one clear, predictable total price.

This level of private healthcare pricing transparency gives international patients financial confidence before they even travel.

Reduced Administrative Overhead = Lower Costs

Because the Turkish system does not rely heavily on private insurance reimbursements for international patients, providers avoid:

• Large billing departments
• Insurance compliance staff
• Claims management teams
• Appeals and denial processing

Lower administrative overhead translates directly into lower treatment costs — without compromising medical standards or technology.

Competitive Market Forces

Turkey has a highly competitive private healthcare market. Clinics compete based on:

• Transparent pricing
• Technology and medical innovation
• Patient experience
• International accreditation
• Service quality

Since pricing is not artificially inflated to accommodate insurance negotiations, providers focus on delivering real value. This competition naturally keeps costs reasonable and encourages high service standards.

Predictable Costs, No Financial Surprises

For patients traveling from countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, or across Europe, one of the biggest concerns is unexpected medical bills.

Turkey’s direct-payment structure eliminates much of that uncertainty. Patients know:

• The total cost before treatment
• What is included in the package
• That there are no hidden insurance adjustments later

This predictable pricing model is one of the strongest advantages of choosing Turkey for elective and specialized medical procedures.

In short, the absence of insurance-driven billing inflation — combined with a transparent, competitive private healthcare market — allows Turkey to offer high-quality medical care at significantly more accessible prices compared to heavily insurance-dependent systems.

7. High Volume of International Patients

Turkey has become one of the world’s leading destinations for medical tourism, welcoming hundreds of thousands of international patients every year from Europe, the UK, the United States, and the Middle East. This consistent and high patient flow is one of the most important factors behind affordable treatment costs.

Unlike countries where patient numbers fluctuate or are limited by insurance systems, Turkish healthcare providers operate in a highly dynamic and competitive environment. This high volume creates significant operational advantages:

✔ Bulk Purchasing Power

Hospitals and dental centers that treat large numbers of patients can purchase:

• Dental implants
• Prosthetic components
• Surgical instruments
• Medical consumables
• Pharmaceuticals

… in large quantities directly from global manufacturers.

Buying in bulk allows institutions to negotiate substantially better pricing compared to smaller clinics in Europe or North America that purchase materials in lower volumes. These savings are passed on to patients without compromising quality.

✔ Strong Supplier Negotiation

High demand enables healthcare providers to negotiate long-term agreements with:

• International implant brands
• Medical device manufacturers
• Laboratory partners
• Pharmaceutical distributors

This ensures stable supply chains and competitive pricing structures year-round.

✔ Optimized Operating Room Efficiency

High patient turnover also improves scheduling efficiency:

• Fully utilized operating rooms
• Streamlined surgical teams
• Reduced idle time
• Standardized treatment workflows

When facilities operate at high capacity, the cost per procedure decreases, because fixed expenses (staff salaries, rent, utilities, equipment maintenance) are distributed across a larger number of patients.

✔ Reduced Per-Patient Overhead

In many Western countries, administrative and insurance-related costs significantly increase treatment prices. In contrast, Turkey’s medical tourism model often involves:

• Direct patient payments
• Transparent package pricing
• Minimal insurance bureaucracy

This reduces administrative burden and overhead costs, allowing institutions to focus resources on clinical excellence instead of paperwork.

✔ Economies of Scale in Action

The result is a classic example of economies of scale:

• Higher volume
• Lower average cost per patient
• Competitive pricing
• Maintained or improved quality standards

Rather than cutting corners, high patient numbers create operational strength — making advanced care more accessible and affordable.

8. Investment in Advanced Technology

One of the most common misconceptions is that lower prices mean outdated or lower-quality technology. In Turkey’s healthcare sector, the opposite is often true.

Over the past two decades, significant public and private investment has transformed the medical infrastructure across the country, particularly in cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, and Antalya. Many hospitals were built or completely renovated in the 2000s and 2010s, resulting in modern, purpose-designed facilities that rival or exceed older European institutions.

Modern Infrastructure by Design

Unlike many hospitals in Western Europe that operate in buildings constructed decades ago, Turkish medical centers were developed with:

• Contemporary surgical layouts
• Dedicated sterile zones
• Advanced ventilation systems
• Integrated digital infrastructure
• Modern patient suites

Newer construction means fewer limitations caused by outdated architecture or infrastructure constraints.

Advanced Diagnostic & Treatment Technologies

Many healthcare institutions in Turkey routinely utilize cutting-edge systems, including:

✔ 3D CBCT Imaging

Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) allows:

• Precise bone density evaluation
• Accurate implant positioning
• Reduced surgical risk
• Improved treatment planning

This technology enhances safety and long-term success rates.

✔ CAD/CAM Digital Dentistry

Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing enables:

• Same-day crowns and restorations
• Highly precise prosthetic fabrication
• Reduced human error
• Faster treatment turnaround

Digital workflows significantly improve both accuracy and efficiency.

✔ Robotic-Assisted Surgery

In selected specialties, robotic systems enhance:

• Surgical precision
• Reduced tissue trauma
• Shorter recovery times
• Lower complication rates

✔ Modern Operating Theaters

Operating rooms are equipped with:

• Advanced anesthesia systems
• Real-time patient monitoring
• High-definition surgical imaging
• Sterilization protocols aligned with international standards

Quality Standards: Is Cheaper Safe?

Affordability often raises safety concerns.

However, many Turkish hospitals:

• Are internationally accredited
• Follow European sterilization protocols
• Employ multilingual staff
• Operate under Ministry of Health regulations

📌 All treatments and services will be carried out in health institutions accredited by the Turkish Ministry of Health and possessing a certificate of authorization in health tourism.

Travel + Treatment: The Added Value

Unlike domestic care in Europe or the US, treatment in Turkey often includes:

• Airport transfers
• 4–5 star hotel stays
• Dedicated patient coordinators
• Translation services
• Post-treatment follow-up support

This integrated model enhances patient experience while remaining cost-effective.

Who Benefits Most from Cost Differences?

Patients who benefit most include:

• Individuals without insurance coverage
• Those facing long NHS waiting times
• Cosmetic surgery candidates
• Dental restoration patients
• Bariatric surgery seekers

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Why is healthcare so expensive in the US compared to Turkey?

Due to insurance systems, malpractice costs, administrative overhead, and higher wages.

Is cheaper treatment in Turkey lower quality?

No. Lower structural costs do not mean lower standards.

Do Turkish doctors have international training?

Many specialists are trained in Europe or the US.

Are medical materials authentic?

Accredited clinics use certified international implant and surgical brands.

Final Thoughts: Strategic Economics, Not Compromised Quality

Medical treatments in Turkey are cheaper primarily due to:

• Lower operational costs
• Currency advantages
• Government support
• Competitive private healthcare
• Reduced insurance inflation
• High patient volume

Not because of lower quality.

For international patients seeking high-standard care with transparent pricing, Turkey represents a strategic healthcare choice.

References

• OECD. (2023). Health at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing.
• World Health Organization. (2022). Global health expenditure database.‍
• Connell, J. (2013). Contemporary medical tourism: Conceptualisation, culture and commodification. Tourism Management, 34, 1–13.
• Turner, L. (2010). Medical tourism and the global marketplace in health services. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 7(3), 291–300.

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